and the tissues, such as adhesion forces. Extracellular and intracellular interfaces between

single cells may now be generated with high accuracy using devices that are now ac­

cessible at the cutting edge of technology [6–9]. The possibility exists that future studies in

this area will offer methods for manipulating certain organelles, or even studies on

specific cell components such as microfilaments or ion channels, among other things.

1.2.2 Timing in Bioelectronics

Both sequential and sequential with regard to time are valid approaches to analyzing the

essential time scales in bioelectronics research. It is necessary to examine the length of

time that the device and biological system are in contact with one another to have a better

understanding of how biological signals are created (Figure 1.2b, c). The ability of the

device to respond at a high frequency is required when engaging with highly active cells

such as neurons or cardiac muscles, which can generate an action potential in milli­

seconds or less. The time at which the desired process occurs determines the kinetics of

the recording or stimulation that is used. When it comes to slower physiological processes

like bone regeneration, a different set of considerations must be taken into account when

building devices to sense or activate such processes. Interfacial chemistry is important

because it can influence both the stability of an interface and the resulting immune re­

sponse. Devices with the capacity to impact chemical transduction must also consider the

FIGURE 1.2

(a–c) The illustration of length and time scales in bioelectronics as well as bioelectrical studies. Reproduced with

permission [ 1]. Copyrights (2020), Royal Society of Chemistry.

4

Bioelectronics